What are the adult health consequences of childhood bullying?

Still considered a rite of passage by some, research is now attempting to understand why victims of childhood bullying are at risk of poorer outcomes in adulthood, not only for psychological health, but also physical health, cognitive functioning and quality of life.

Though there is no universal definition of childhood bullying, the term is often used to describe when a child repeatedly and deliberately says or does things that causes distress to another child, or when a child attempts to force another child to do something against their will by using threats, violence or intimidation.

The US Department of Health & Human Services (DHHS) quote studies that show the most common types of bullying are verbal and social:

Research shows that persistent bullying can cause depression and anxiety and contribute to suicidal behavior.
Name calling - 44.2% of cases
Teasing - 43.3%
Spreading rumors or lies - 36.3%
Pushing or shoving - 32.4%
Hitting, slapping or kicking - 29.2%
Leaving out - 28.5%
Threatening - 27.4%
Stealing belongings - 27.3%
Sexual comments or gestures - 23.7%
Email or blogging - 9.9%

The health impact of bullying on children is complex. Research shows that persistent bullying can cause depression and anxiety and contribute to feelings of suicidal behavior.

The DHHS, however, says that media reports often "oversimplify" the relationship between suicide and bullying. Most young people who are bullied do not become suicidal, they state, and most young people who die by suicide have multiple risk factors, beyond bullying alone.

As well as the psychological impact of bullying, though, studies have shown that children who are bullied may also be prone to physical illness, not only during the period in which the bullying took place, but in later life.

For instance, recently Medical News Today reported on a study that found children who are bullied between the ages of 8 and 10 are more likely to experience sleepwalking, night terrors or nightmares at the age of 12.
Victims of bullying have 'poorer health, lower income, lower quality of life' as adults

But other research shows that the long-term health effects of bullying on the victim are potentially much more far-reaching and serious.


Fast facts about bullying
Over 77% of American students have been bullied verbally, mentally and physically
About 85% of incidents receive no kind of intervention, so it is common for bullying to be ignored
In surveys quoted by the DHHS, approximately 30% of young people admit to bullying others.

A 2014 study from researchers at King's College London in the UK found that the negative social, physical and mental health effects of childhood bullying are still evident up to 40 years later.

The study examined data from the British National Child Development Study, which includes information from all children born in England, Scotland and Wales during 1 week in 1958. In total, 7,771 children from that study - whose parents provided information on their child's exposure to bullying when they were aged 7 and 11 - were followed until the age of 50.

Similar to modern rates in both the UK and US, 28% of children in the study had been bullied occasionally, and 15% had been bullied frequently.

The researchers found that, at age 50, participants who had been bullied when they were children were more likely to be in poorer physical and psychological health and have worse cognitive functioning than people who had not been bullied.

Victims of bullying were also found to be more likely to be unemployed, earn less and have lower educational levels than people who had not been bullied. They were also less likely to be in a relationship or have good social support.

People who had been bullied were more likely to report lower quality of life and life satisfaction than their peers who had not been bullied.

Even when factors such as childhood IQ, emotional and behavioral problems, parents' socioeconomic status and low parental involvement were taken into account, the association remained between bullying and negative social, physical and mental health outcomes.

"Our study shows that the effects of bullying are still visible nearly 4 decades later," said lead author Dr. Ryu Takizawa, from the Institute of Psychiatry at King's College London. "The impact of bullying is persistent and pervasive, with health, social and economic consequences lasting well into adulthood."

"We need to move away from any perception that bullying is just an inevitable part of growing up," added co-author Prof. Louise Arseneault. She says that while programs to stop bullying are important, teachers, parents and policymakers need to focus efforts on early intervention to prevent problems caused by bullying persisting into adolescence and adulthood.
How does bullying in childhood affect physical health in adulthood?

Prof. Arseneault has also written in depth on another 2014 study into the long-term health effects of bullying, conducted by a team from Duke University Medical Center in Durham, NC.

Some experts think that bullying results in a kind of "toxic stress" that affects children's physiological responses, possibly explaining why some victims of bullying go on to develop health problems.

That study investigated the hypothesis that bullying victimization is a form of "toxic stress." Proponents of this theory suggest that this toxic stress affects children's physiological responses, which may explain why many - otherwise healthy - victims of bullying go on to develop health problems.

One mechanism that may drive this psychological and physical relationship is the inflammatory response, which occurs when the body is fighting an infection, reacting to an injury or responding to a chronic health problem.

The Duke team assessed the extent of this response in victims of bullying by measuring levels of a protein called C-reactive protein (CRP). High levels of CRP occur during the inflammatory response.

Previously, studies have shown that people who were abused by an adult in their childhood display elevated levels of CRP. Prof. Arseneault says this suggests that the body is reacting to toxic stress in the same way as when it is attempting to fight an infection.

The Duke team analyzed data from the Great Smoky Mountains Study which measured CRP levels in 1,420 children aged 9-16 who had been victims of bullying, as well as bullies and "bully-victims" - children who are victims of bullying and who also bully others.

The researchers found that children who had been involved in bullying multiple times - whether as victims, bullies or bully-victims - had higher levels of CRP than those who were not exposed to bullying.

The team then looked at the participants' CRP measurements as they entered adulthood. The findings were similar - people who had been repeatedly bullied during childhood displayed the highest levels of CRP.

However, in a finding that surprised the researchers, participants who bullied others were found to now have the lowest levels of CRP out of all groups studied - including those who had not been exposed to bullying.

For both the childhood and early-adulthood CRP measurements, the researchers took into account factors such as maltreatment, family dysfunction, anxiety disorders, prior CRP levels and variables associated with CRP, but the associations remained.

Prof. Arseneault comments that previous research along these lines has demonstrated that bullying can influence physiological responses to stress, including altered levels of cortisol, the hormone that is released in the body when under stress. One study involving pairs of identical twins - where one twin had been bullied and the other had not - found that the bullied twins demonstrated a "blunted" level of cortisol response.

Medical News Today spoke to lead author of the study, William E. Copeland, assistant professor at the Center for Developmental Epidemiology at Duke, who confirmed that the elevated CRP levels suggest one mechanism responsible for translating the act of bullying into potentially long-term physical health problems:


"Bullying and the continued threat of being bullying can have physiological consequences. There is evidence that over time this experience can dysregulate biological stress response systems. In our work, victims have higher levels of the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein up to a decade after their bullying experience. Over time, the wear and tear of these physiological changes can limit the individual's ability to respond to new challenges and put them at increased risk for physical illnesses."
Victims, bullies and bully-victims - how do their outcomes compare?

In 2013, Prof. Copeland also co-authored another analysis of data from the Great Smoky Mountains Study, looking into the long-term health consequences of bullying that - as wth the King's College London study - found that victims of bullying have a higher risk of poor health, lower socioeconomic status and problems with forming social relationships as adults.

"Bully-victims" were found to be six times more likely to have a serious illness, smoke regularly or develop a psychiatric disorder in adulthood than those who had not been involved in bullying.

This study also looked at the victims, bullies and bully-victim groups. However, in this study, the bully-victims were found to be the most vulnerable group. Subjects in this group were found to be six times more likely to have a serious illness, smoke regularly or develop a psychiatric disorder in adulthood than those who had not been involved in bullying.

"Not all victims are created equally," Dr. Copeland says of the study's findings. "Victims that attempt to fight back and hurt others tend to be impulsive, easily provoked, have low self-esteem and are often unpopular with their peers. Bully-victims are also more likely to come from dysfunctional families and to have been maltreated by family members."

"As such," he continues, "these children have been exposed to high levels of adversity and lack the skills, temperament and social support to cope effectively. This puts them at profound risk for long-term problems."

The 1,420 participants were interviewed at ages 9, 11 or 13, and then followed up at ages 19, 21 or 24-26 years. Nearly a quarter of the children (23.6%) reported having been bullied, with 7.9% saying they had been bullies, and 6.1% reporting that they had been bully-victims.

While both victims and bully-victims were found to be at risk of poorer health, finances and social relationships as adults, participants who reported being bullies had no association with poorer outcomes in adulthood.

However, Dr. Copeland told us that:


"It is important to be clear here that bullies do not get off scot-free. Pure bullies do have worse outcomes in adulthood but those poor outcomes tend to be due to their preexisting behavior problems and family adversities rather than being a bully per se. For victims, in contrast, the experience of being a victim itself is associated with worse outcomes."

Dr. Copeland considers that the most effective prevention programs involve parent meetings, firm disciplinary methods and strong supervision.

"Once a child has been bullied, it is critical for parents and teachers to be supportive and to ensure that the bullying does not continue," he emphasizes. "Too often, bullying is not taken seriously and is treated like a normal rite of passage."

Though evidence is mounting for physical health problems in adulthood that are associated with childhood bullying, experts say it is the psychological consequences that remain the most concerning, and which are preventable.

Victims of bullying are at increased risk for a range of anxiety disorders, says Dr. Copeland, while bully-victims are at risk for depression and suicide.

"This is tragic because we have effective, tested treatments for all of those problems," he says. "The problem is that very few people with such mental health problems get the help they need."

What are the adult health consequences of childhood bullying?

Still considered a rite of passage by some, research is now attempting to understand why victims of childhood bullying are at risk of poorer outcomes in adulthood, not only for psychological health, but also physical health, cognitive functioning and quality of life.

Though there is no universal definition of childhood bullying, the term is often used to describe when a child repeatedly and deliberately says or does things that causes distress to another child, or when a child attempts to force another child to do something against their will by using threats, violence or intimidation.

The US Department of Health & Human Services (DHHS) quote studies that show the most common types of bullying are verbal and social:

Research shows that persistent bullying can cause depression and anxiety and contribute to suicidal behavior.
Name calling - 44.2% of cases
Teasing - 43.3%
Spreading rumors or lies - 36.3%
Pushing or shoving - 32.4%
Hitting, slapping or kicking - 29.2%
Leaving out - 28.5%
Threatening - 27.4%
Stealing belongings - 27.3%
Sexual comments or gestures - 23.7%
Email or blogging - 9.9%

The health impact of bullying on children is complex. Research shows that persistent bullying can cause depression and anxiety and contribute to feelings of suicidal behavior.

The DHHS, however, says that media reports often "oversimplify" the relationship between suicide and bullying. Most young people who are bullied do not become suicidal, they state, and most young people who die by suicide have multiple risk factors, beyond bullying alone.

As well as the psychological impact of bullying, though, studies have shown that children who are bullied may also be prone to physical illness, not only during the period in which the bullying took place, but in later life.

For instance, recently Medical News Today reported on a study that found children who are bullied between the ages of 8 and 10 are more likely to experience sleepwalking, night terrors or nightmares at the age of 12.
Victims of bullying have 'poorer health, lower income, lower quality of life' as adults

But other research shows that the long-term health effects of bullying on the victim are potentially much more far-reaching and serious.


Fast facts about bullying
Over 77% of American students have been bullied verbally, mentally and physically
About 85% of incidents receive no kind of intervention, so it is common for bullying to be ignored
In surveys quoted by the DHHS, approximately 30% of young people admit to bullying others.

A 2014 study from researchers at King's College London in the UK found that the negative social, physical and mental health effects of childhood bullying are still evident up to 40 years later.

The study examined data from the British National Child Development Study, which includes information from all children born in England, Scotland and Wales during 1 week in 1958. In total, 7,771 children from that study - whose parents provided information on their child's exposure to bullying when they were aged 7 and 11 - were followed until the age of 50.

Similar to modern rates in both the UK and US, 28% of children in the study had been bullied occasionally, and 15% had been bullied frequently.

The researchers found that, at age 50, participants who had been bullied when they were children were more likely to be in poorer physical and psychological health and have worse cognitive functioning than people who had not been bullied.

Victims of bullying were also found to be more likely to be unemployed, earn less and have lower educational levels than people who had not been bullied. They were also less likely to be in a relationship or have good social support.

People who had been bullied were more likely to report lower quality of life and life satisfaction than their peers who had not been bullied.

Even when factors such as childhood IQ, emotional and behavioral problems, parents' socioeconomic status and low parental involvement were taken into account, the association remained between bullying and negative social, physical and mental health outcomes.

"Our study shows that the effects of bullying are still visible nearly 4 decades later," said lead author Dr. Ryu Takizawa, from the Institute of Psychiatry at King's College London. "The impact of bullying is persistent and pervasive, with health, social and economic consequences lasting well into adulthood."

"We need to move away from any perception that bullying is just an inevitable part of growing up," added co-author Prof. Louise Arseneault. She says that while programs to stop bullying are important, teachers, parents and policymakers need to focus efforts on early intervention to prevent problems caused by bullying persisting into adolescence and adulthood.
How does bullying in childhood affect physical health in adulthood?

Prof. Arseneault has also written in depth on another 2014 study into the long-term health effects of bullying, conducted by a team from Duke University Medical Center in Durham, NC.

Some experts think that bullying results in a kind of "toxic stress" that affects children's physiological responses, possibly explaining why some victims of bullying go on to develop health problems.

That study investigated the hypothesis that bullying victimization is a form of "toxic stress." Proponents of this theory suggest that this toxic stress affects children's physiological responses, which may explain why many - otherwise healthy - victims of bullying go on to develop health problems.

One mechanism that may drive this psychological and physical relationship is the inflammatory response, which occurs when the body is fighting an infection, reacting to an injury or responding to a chronic health problem.

The Duke team assessed the extent of this response in victims of bullying by measuring levels of a protein called C-reactive protein (CRP). High levels of CRP occur during the inflammatory response.

Previously, studies have shown that people who were abused by an adult in their childhood display elevated levels of CRP. Prof. Arseneault says this suggests that the body is reacting to toxic stress in the same way as when it is attempting to fight an infection.

The Duke team analyzed data from the Great Smoky Mountains Study which measured CRP levels in 1,420 children aged 9-16 who had been victims of bullying, as well as bullies and "bully-victims" - children who are victims of bullying and who also bully others.

The researchers found that children who had been involved in bullying multiple times - whether as victims, bullies or bully-victims - had higher levels of CRP than those who were not exposed to bullying.

The team then looked at the participants' CRP measurements as they entered adulthood. The findings were similar - people who had been repeatedly bullied during childhood displayed the highest levels of CRP.

However, in a finding that surprised the researchers, participants who bullied others were found to now have the lowest levels of CRP out of all groups studied - including those who had not been exposed to bullying.

For both the childhood and early-adulthood CRP measurements, the researchers took into account factors such as maltreatment, family dysfunction, anxiety disorders, prior CRP levels and variables associated with CRP, but the associations remained.

Prof. Arseneault comments that previous research along these lines has demonstrated that bullying can influence physiological responses to stress, including altered levels of cortisol, the hormone that is released in the body when under stress. One study involving pairs of identical twins - where one twin had been bullied and the other had not - found that the bullied twins demonstrated a "blunted" level of cortisol response.

Medical News Today spoke to lead author of the study, William E. Copeland, assistant professor at the Center for Developmental Epidemiology at Duke, who confirmed that the elevated CRP levels suggest one mechanism responsible for translating the act of bullying into potentially long-term physical health problems:


"Bullying and the continued threat of being bullying can have physiological consequences. There is evidence that over time this experience can dysregulate biological stress response systems. In our work, victims have higher levels of the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein up to a decade after their bullying experience. Over time, the wear and tear of these physiological changes can limit the individual's ability to respond to new challenges and put them at increased risk for physical illnesses."
Victims, bullies and bully-victims - how do their outcomes compare?

In 2013, Prof. Copeland also co-authored another analysis of data from the Great Smoky Mountains Study, looking into the long-term health consequences of bullying that - as wth the King's College London study - found that victims of bullying have a higher risk of poor health, lower socioeconomic status and problems with forming social relationships as adults.

"Bully-victims" were found to be six times more likely to have a serious illness, smoke regularly or develop a psychiatric disorder in adulthood than those who had not been involved in bullying.

This study also looked at the victims, bullies and bully-victim groups. However, in this study, the bully-victims were found to be the most vulnerable group. Subjects in this group were found to be six times more likely to have a serious illness, smoke regularly or develop a psychiatric disorder in adulthood than those who had not been involved in bullying.

"Not all victims are created equally," Dr. Copeland says of the study's findings. "Victims that attempt to fight back and hurt others tend to be impulsive, easily provoked, have low self-esteem and are often unpopular with their peers. Bully-victims are also more likely to come from dysfunctional families and to have been maltreated by family members."

"As such," he continues, "these children have been exposed to high levels of adversity and lack the skills, temperament and social support to cope effectively. This puts them at profound risk for long-term problems."

The 1,420 participants were interviewed at ages 9, 11 or 13, and then followed up at ages 19, 21 or 24-26 years. Nearly a quarter of the children (23.6%) reported having been bullied, with 7.9% saying they had been bullies, and 6.1% reporting that they had been bully-victims.

While both victims and bully-victims were found to be at risk of poorer health, finances and social relationships as adults, participants who reported being bullies had no association with poorer outcomes in adulthood.

However, Dr. Copeland told us that:


"It is important to be clear here that bullies do not get off scot-free. Pure bullies do have worse outcomes in adulthood but those poor outcomes tend to be due to their preexisting behavior problems and family adversities rather than being a bully per se. For victims, in contrast, the experience of being a victim itself is associated with worse outcomes."

Dr. Copeland considers that the most effective prevention programs involve parent meetings, firm disciplinary methods and strong supervision.

"Once a child has been bullied, it is critical for parents and teachers to be supportive and to ensure that the bullying does not continue," he emphasizes. "Too often, bullying is not taken seriously and is treated like a normal rite of passage."

Though evidence is mounting for physical health problems in adulthood that are associated with childhood bullying, experts say it is the psychological consequences that remain the most concerning, and which are preventable.

Victims of bullying are at increased risk for a range of anxiety disorders, says Dr. Copeland, while bully-victims are at risk for depression and suicide.

"This is tragic because we have effective, tested treatments for all of those problems," he says. "The problem is that very few people with such mental health problems get the help they need."

By delving into the inner workings of synapses, the junctions between brain cells, scientists have mapped how a protein called Arc helps regulate their activity to translate learning into long-term memory.

By delving into the inner workings of synapses, the junctions between brain cells, scientists have mapped how a protein called Arc helps regulate their activity to translate learning into long-term memory.Steve Finkbeiner, a professor of neurology and physiology at the University of California San Francisco (UCSF), and colleagues, believe their discovery also offers a deeper understanding of what goes on at the molecular level when this activity is disrupted, with implications for Alzheimer's and other neurological disorders.

They write about their findings in a paper published online in Nature Neuroscience at the weekend.

Finkbeiner, who led the research at Gladstone Institutes, a neurological disease research center affiliated to UCSF, says in a statement:"Scientists knew that Arc was involved in long-term memory, because mice lacking the Arc protein could learn new tasks, but failed to remember them the next day."
Synapses

Synapses are highly specialized junctions that process and relay signals between neurons or brain cells. Although the synapses formed during our early brain development form the majority of those we shall ever have, they can be formed, broken and strengthened throughout the rest of our lives. The more active a synapse is, the stronger it gets: this is essential to making new memories.
But if synapses become over-active, they can over-stimulate neurons, which results in epileptic seizures, so somehow, the brain keeps synapse activity in check to stop this happening.
Homeostatic Scaling Stops Synapses Getting Hyperactive

One way the brain stops synapses getting too excited is a recently discovered process called "homeostatic scaling". The neuroscientists who discovered this process found it strikes a balance between synapse-strengthening and keeping synapse excitation in check.

But exactly how neurons strike this balance was somewhat of a mystery: although researchers suspected it had something to with the Arc protein.

"Because initial observations showed Arc accumulating at the synapses during learning, researchers thought that Arc's presence at these synapses was driving the formation of long-lasting memories," says Finkbeiner, although he and his team had other ideas.
Lab Studies Reveal Three Regions Control Arc's Behavior

So they set out to study the behavior of Arc in the lab: first in animals and then in culture.
They were surprised to discover that while Arc accumulates at the synapses when individual neurons are stimulated during learning, soon afterwards, most of the protein gets shuttled into the nucleus.

Lead author Erica Korb, says when they looked more closely, they saw how three regions in the protein were controlling its activity. One region exports the protein from the nucleus, another transports it into the nucleus, and the third keeps it there.
"The presence of this complex and tightly regulated system is strong evidence that this process is biologically important," she adds.
Arc As Master Regulator of Homeostatic Scaling

The team believes their experiments show Arc is a master regulator of homeostatic scaling.

Genes have to be switched on and off at precise times to produce the proteins that neurons use to form memories.


The team found Arc controls this activity, which is required for homeostatic scaling, from inside the nucleus of the neuron.

The process strengthens the synapses, allowing formation of long-term memory, without letting them become too excited.
Findings Could Be Important for a Number of Neurological Diseases

Finkbeiner says their finding could be important for a number of neurological diseases. Not just because it clarifies the role of Arc in the formation of long-term memory, but also because it offers "new insight into the homeostatic scaling process itself - disruptions in which have already been implicated in a whole host of neurological diseases".

For example in Alzheimer's disease, scientists have discovered that the hippocampus, the brain's memory center, has much lower levels of Arc than normal.

"It's possible that disruptions to the homeostatic scaling process may contribute to the learning and memory deficits seen in Alzheimer's," suggests Finkbeiner.

Disruption to Arc production and transport could also be a factor in autism. A common cause of autism and mental retardation is the genetic disorder Fragile X, which has a direct impact on how neurons produce Arc.

Korb says they hope further investigations of Arc and its effect on health and disease will offer even deeper understanding of these and other neurological disorders, plus lay the groundwork for new treatments.

Funds from the National Institute of Neurological Disease and Stroke, the National Institute on Aging and the Keck Foundation, plus a Ruth L. Kirschstein Fellowship, helped finance the study.

In another recently published study, researchers at the University of California Los Angeles suggest that healthy habits are linked to reduced memory loss.

While in another intriguing piece of research, scientists discovered that clenching your right hand may help create a stronger memory of an event or action, and clenching your left hand may help you recall the memory later.

By delving into the inner workings of synapses, the junctions between brain cells, scientists have mapped how a protein called Arc helps regulate their activity to translate learning into long-term memory.

By delving into the inner workings of synapses, the junctions between brain cells, scientists have mapped how a protein called Arc helps regulate their activity to translate learning into long-term memory.Steve Finkbeiner, a professor of neurology and physiology at the University of California San Francisco (UCSF), and colleagues, believe their discovery also offers a deeper understanding of what goes on at the molecular level when this activity is disrupted, with implications for Alzheimer's and other neurological disorders.

They write about their findings in a paper published online in Nature Neuroscience at the weekend.

Finkbeiner, who led the research at Gladstone Institutes, a neurological disease research center affiliated to UCSF, says in a statement:"Scientists knew that Arc was involved in long-term memory, because mice lacking the Arc protein could learn new tasks, but failed to remember them the next day."
Synapses

Synapses are highly specialized junctions that process and relay signals between neurons or brain cells. Although the synapses formed during our early brain development form the majority of those we shall ever have, they can be formed, broken and strengthened throughout the rest of our lives. The more active a synapse is, the stronger it gets: this is essential to making new memories.
But if synapses become over-active, they can over-stimulate neurons, which results in epileptic seizures, so somehow, the brain keeps synapse activity in check to stop this happening.
Homeostatic Scaling Stops Synapses Getting Hyperactive

One way the brain stops synapses getting too excited is a recently discovered process called "homeostatic scaling". The neuroscientists who discovered this process found it strikes a balance between synapse-strengthening and keeping synapse excitation in check.

But exactly how neurons strike this balance was somewhat of a mystery: although researchers suspected it had something to with the Arc protein.

"Because initial observations showed Arc accumulating at the synapses during learning, researchers thought that Arc's presence at these synapses was driving the formation of long-lasting memories," says Finkbeiner, although he and his team had other ideas.
Lab Studies Reveal Three Regions Control Arc's Behavior

So they set out to study the behavior of Arc in the lab: first in animals and then in culture.
They were surprised to discover that while Arc accumulates at the synapses when individual neurons are stimulated during learning, soon afterwards, most of the protein gets shuttled into the nucleus.

Lead author Erica Korb, says when they looked more closely, they saw how three regions in the protein were controlling its activity. One region exports the protein from the nucleus, another transports it into the nucleus, and the third keeps it there.
"The presence of this complex and tightly regulated system is strong evidence that this process is biologically important," she adds.
Arc As Master Regulator of Homeostatic Scaling

The team believes their experiments show Arc is a master regulator of homeostatic scaling.

Genes have to be switched on and off at precise times to produce the proteins that neurons use to form memories.


The team found Arc controls this activity, which is required for homeostatic scaling, from inside the nucleus of the neuron.

The process strengthens the synapses, allowing formation of long-term memory, without letting them become too excited.
Findings Could Be Important for a Number of Neurological Diseases

Finkbeiner says their finding could be important for a number of neurological diseases. Not just because it clarifies the role of Arc in the formation of long-term memory, but also because it offers "new insight into the homeostatic scaling process itself - disruptions in which have already been implicated in a whole host of neurological diseases".

For example in Alzheimer's disease, scientists have discovered that the hippocampus, the brain's memory center, has much lower levels of Arc than normal.

"It's possible that disruptions to the homeostatic scaling process may contribute to the learning and memory deficits seen in Alzheimer's," suggests Finkbeiner.

Disruption to Arc production and transport could also be a factor in autism. A common cause of autism and mental retardation is the genetic disorder Fragile X, which has a direct impact on how neurons produce Arc.

Korb says they hope further investigations of Arc and its effect on health and disease will offer even deeper understanding of these and other neurological disorders, plus lay the groundwork for new treatments.

Funds from the National Institute of Neurological Disease and Stroke, the National Institute on Aging and the Keck Foundation, plus a Ruth L. Kirschstein Fellowship, helped finance the study.

In another recently published study, researchers at the University of California Los Angeles suggest that healthy habits are linked to reduced memory loss.

While in another intriguing piece of research, scientists discovered that clenching your right hand may help create a stronger memory of an event or action, and clenching your left hand may help you recall the memory later.

Adolescent drinking has long-term impact on memory and learning skills

The study, published in Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, examines how exposure to alcohol during adolescence can affect the growth of a brain that has yet to develop fully, leading to abnormalities that can influence behavior in adulthood.


"In the eyes of the law, once people reach the age of 18, they are considered adult, but the brain continues to mature and refine all the way into the mid-20s," says lead author Mary-Louise Risher, a postdoctoral researcher in the Duke Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences.

While adolescence is a crucial period in terms of cognitive, emotional and social maturation, it also happens to be a time when alcohol consumption frequently begins and continues at high levels.

"It's important for young people to know that when they drink heavily during this period of development, there could be changes occurring that have a lasting impact on memory and other cognitive functions," Risher states.


Although it is widely acknowledged that adolescents respond differently to adults concerning the effects of alcohol consumption on learning and motor functioning, the study authors state that the long-term consequences of repeated alcohol exposure in adolescence have yet to be thoroughly examined.

For the study, the researchers periodically exposed young rats to levels of alcohol during their adolescence that would lead to impairment but not sedation in humans for a period of 16 days. Following this, the rats received no further alcohol, allowing them to mature into adulthood over 24-29 days.

Previously, the researchers had demonstrated animals exposed to alcohol during adolescence would grow up to be less adept at memory tasks than animals that were not exposed to alcohol. However, they did not know how the hippocampus, the region of the brain associated with memory and learning, was affected.
Hyperactive LTP and seemingly immature dendritic spines

In the new study, the researchers measured a cellular mechanism known as long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. LTP is the mechanism by which the brain synapses strengthen as they are repeatedly used to learn new things or recollect memories.

Vigorous synaptic activity is best for efficient learning and, as a result, LTP is typically highest in younger people who have to acquire large amounts of new memory when approaching adulthood.

The researchers predicted they would find lower levels of LTP in the adult rats who had been exposed to alcohol during adolescence. However, what they found was the complete opposite.


Senior author Scott Swartzwelder, a professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Duke and Senior Research Career Scientist at the Durham VA Medical Center, explains the finding:

"At first blush, you would think the animals would be smarter. But that's the opposite of what we found. And it actually does make sense, because if you produce too much LTP in one of these circuits, there is a period of time where you can't produce any more."

Consequently, an animal producing too much LTP will eventually stop learning. "For learning to be efficient, your brain needs a delicate balance of excitation and inhibition - too much in either direction and the circuits do not work optimally," states Prof. Swartzwelder.

A structural change in the nerve cells of the hippocampus was observed alongside the hyperactive LTP. The dendritic spines, vital for cell-to-cell communication, appeared lanky and spindly, as though they were immature. Mature spines are shorter and look similar to mushrooms.

"Something happens during adolescent alcohol exposure that changes the way the hippocampus and other regions of the brain function and how the cells actually look - both the LTP and the dendritic spines have an immature appearance in adulthood," reports Prof. Swartzwelder.

According to Risher, the immature quality of these brain cells could be associated with behavioral immaturity. "It's quite possible that alcohol disrupts the maturation process, which can affect these cognitive function later on," she adds. "That's something we are eager to explore in ongoing studies."


In addition to this, the researchers plan to investigate additional cellular changes and the longer-term effects of exposure to alcohol on the brain.


Recently, Medical News Today ran a Spotlight feature article investigating whether there are any health benefits to be had from the moderate consumption of alcohol.

Adolescent drinking has long-term impact on memory and learning skills

The study, published in Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, examines how exposure to alcohol during adolescence can affect the growth of a brain that has yet to develop fully, leading to abnormalities that can influence behavior in adulthood.


"In the eyes of the law, once people reach the age of 18, they are considered adult, but the brain continues to mature and refine all the way into the mid-20s," says lead author Mary-Louise Risher, a postdoctoral researcher in the Duke Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences.

While adolescence is a crucial period in terms of cognitive, emotional and social maturation, it also happens to be a time when alcohol consumption frequently begins and continues at high levels.

"It's important for young people to know that when they drink heavily during this period of development, there could be changes occurring that have a lasting impact on memory and other cognitive functions," Risher states.


Although it is widely acknowledged that adolescents respond differently to adults concerning the effects of alcohol consumption on learning and motor functioning, the study authors state that the long-term consequences of repeated alcohol exposure in adolescence have yet to be thoroughly examined.

For the study, the researchers periodically exposed young rats to levels of alcohol during their adolescence that would lead to impairment but not sedation in humans for a period of 16 days. Following this, the rats received no further alcohol, allowing them to mature into adulthood over 24-29 days.

Previously, the researchers had demonstrated animals exposed to alcohol during adolescence would grow up to be less adept at memory tasks than animals that were not exposed to alcohol. However, they did not know how the hippocampus, the region of the brain associated with memory and learning, was affected.
Hyperactive LTP and seemingly immature dendritic spines

In the new study, the researchers measured a cellular mechanism known as long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. LTP is the mechanism by which the brain synapses strengthen as they are repeatedly used to learn new things or recollect memories.

Vigorous synaptic activity is best for efficient learning and, as a result, LTP is typically highest in younger people who have to acquire large amounts of new memory when approaching adulthood.

The researchers predicted they would find lower levels of LTP in the adult rats who had been exposed to alcohol during adolescence. However, what they found was the complete opposite.


Senior author Scott Swartzwelder, a professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Duke and Senior Research Career Scientist at the Durham VA Medical Center, explains the finding:

"At first blush, you would think the animals would be smarter. But that's the opposite of what we found. And it actually does make sense, because if you produce too much LTP in one of these circuits, there is a period of time where you can't produce any more."

Consequently, an animal producing too much LTP will eventually stop learning. "For learning to be efficient, your brain needs a delicate balance of excitation and inhibition - too much in either direction and the circuits do not work optimally," states Prof. Swartzwelder.

A structural change in the nerve cells of the hippocampus was observed alongside the hyperactive LTP. The dendritic spines, vital for cell-to-cell communication, appeared lanky and spindly, as though they were immature. Mature spines are shorter and look similar to mushrooms.

"Something happens during adolescent alcohol exposure that changes the way the hippocampus and other regions of the brain function and how the cells actually look - both the LTP and the dendritic spines have an immature appearance in adulthood," reports Prof. Swartzwelder.

According to Risher, the immature quality of these brain cells could be associated with behavioral immaturity. "It's quite possible that alcohol disrupts the maturation process, which can affect these cognitive function later on," she adds. "That's something we are eager to explore in ongoing studies."


In addition to this, the researchers plan to investigate additional cellular changes and the longer-term effects of exposure to alcohol on the brain.


Recently, Medical News Today ran a Spotlight feature article investigating whether there are any health benefits to be had from the moderate consumption of alcohol.

Women more likely than men to have ongoing memory problems after concussion

ew study led by researchers from Taiwan finds the effects of concussion may differ between men and women, with women experiencing more persistent working memory impairment.

As shown in these brain scans, women showed less working memory activity than men more than 2 months after concussion.
Image credit: Radiological Society of North America


Concussion, also referred to as mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), is defined as a temporary loss of normal brain function as a result of a head injury. Symptoms can include headache, sleep impairment, fatigue, poor coordination, loss of memory, poor concentration and changes in mood.

While the majority of people fully recover from concussion within 3 months, around 10-15% continue to experience complications.

Increasingly, studies have investigated the long-term effects of concussion and have produced some worrying results. In February 2013, for example, a study found concussion can cause abnormal brain wave activity and poor memory decades after injury, while another study identified damage to the brain's gray matter in patients with concussion 4 months after injury.

What is more, studies of amateur and professional athletes - who are most prone to concussion due to their involvement in contact sports - have indicated that concussion is more common among female athletes than male athletes.

According to lead author of this latest study, Dr. Chi-Jen Chen, of the Taipei Medical University Shuang-Ho Hospital and the Chia-Yi Hospital - both in Taiwan - women are also more likely to seek medical attention for persistent symptoms after concussion.

"We started to wonder whether there might be differences in MTBI outcomes between men and women," says Dr. Chen.
Persistent reduction in working memory activity among women with concussion

For their study, recently published in the journal Radiology, the team used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to analyze the brain activity of 15 men and 15 women with concussion as they performed working memory tasks, as well as the brain activity of 15 male and 15 female controls.

Dr. Chen says the team focused on working memory - the brain system responsible for processing and storing short-term information - because working memory impairment is a common complaint after concussion.

"Since working memory is important for a wide variety of cognitive skills, compromised working memory could have significant effects on everyday life," adds Dr. Chen.

All participants underwent fMRI 1 month after injury, and follow-up fMRI scans were conducted 6 weeks later. The working memory tasks included a digit span test, which assesses the ability to remember a sequence of numbers, and a continuous performance test (CPT), which measures an individual's sustained and selective attention.

From the first set of fMRI scans, the researchers found that - compared with the control participants - men showed an increase in working memory activity, while women demonstrated a reduction in working memory activity.

At follow-up fMRI scans, the working memory activity of men was on par with that of the control participants. Women, however, demonstrated an ongoing reduction in working memory activity, known as "persistent hypoactivation," indicative of continuous working memory impairment.

What is more, women with concussion were found to have lower scores on the digit span tests than women in the control group.

Commenting on the findings, Dr. Chen says:


"These findings provide evidence that female gender may be a risk factor for working memory impairment after MTBI, If so, more aggressive management should be initiated once MTBI is diagnosed in female patients."

Dr. Chen adds that since fMRI has the ability to monitor working memory activity in the brain, it could be added to treatment strategies for women with concussion, though he stresses further research is needed to confirm the team's findings.

Women more likely than men to have ongoing memory problems after concussion

ew study led by researchers from Taiwan finds the effects of concussion may differ between men and women, with women experiencing more persistent working memory impairment.

As shown in these brain scans, women showed less working memory activity than men more than 2 months after concussion.
Image credit: Radiological Society of North America


Concussion, also referred to as mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), is defined as a temporary loss of normal brain function as a result of a head injury. Symptoms can include headache, sleep impairment, fatigue, poor coordination, loss of memory, poor concentration and changes in mood.

While the majority of people fully recover from concussion within 3 months, around 10-15% continue to experience complications.

Increasingly, studies have investigated the long-term effects of concussion and have produced some worrying results. In February 2013, for example, a study found concussion can cause abnormal brain wave activity and poor memory decades after injury, while another study identified damage to the brain's gray matter in patients with concussion 4 months after injury.

What is more, studies of amateur and professional athletes - who are most prone to concussion due to their involvement in contact sports - have indicated that concussion is more common among female athletes than male athletes.

According to lead author of this latest study, Dr. Chi-Jen Chen, of the Taipei Medical University Shuang-Ho Hospital and the Chia-Yi Hospital - both in Taiwan - women are also more likely to seek medical attention for persistent symptoms after concussion.

"We started to wonder whether there might be differences in MTBI outcomes between men and women," says Dr. Chen.
Persistent reduction in working memory activity among women with concussion

For their study, recently published in the journal Radiology, the team used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to analyze the brain activity of 15 men and 15 women with concussion as they performed working memory tasks, as well as the brain activity of 15 male and 15 female controls.

Dr. Chen says the team focused on working memory - the brain system responsible for processing and storing short-term information - because working memory impairment is a common complaint after concussion.

"Since working memory is important for a wide variety of cognitive skills, compromised working memory could have significant effects on everyday life," adds Dr. Chen.

All participants underwent fMRI 1 month after injury, and follow-up fMRI scans were conducted 6 weeks later. The working memory tasks included a digit span test, which assesses the ability to remember a sequence of numbers, and a continuous performance test (CPT), which measures an individual's sustained and selective attention.

From the first set of fMRI scans, the researchers found that - compared with the control participants - men showed an increase in working memory activity, while women demonstrated a reduction in working memory activity.

At follow-up fMRI scans, the working memory activity of men was on par with that of the control participants. Women, however, demonstrated an ongoing reduction in working memory activity, known as "persistent hypoactivation," indicative of continuous working memory impairment.

What is more, women with concussion were found to have lower scores on the digit span tests than women in the control group.

Commenting on the findings, Dr. Chen says:


"These findings provide evidence that female gender may be a risk factor for working memory impairment after MTBI, If so, more aggressive management should be initiated once MTBI is diagnosed in female patients."

Dr. Chen adds that since fMRI has the ability to monitor working memory activity in the brain, it could be added to treatment strategies for women with concussion, though he stresses further research is needed to confirm the team's findings.

Accenture and Top Banks in Asia Call for Applicants for FinTech Innovation Lab Asia-Pacific 2015

Accenture and Top Banks in Asia Call for Applicants for FinTech Innovation Lab Asia-Pacific 2015

Accenture and Top Banks in Asia Call for Applicants for FinTech Innovation Lab Asia-Pacific 2015

Accenture and Top Banks in Asia Call for Applicants for FinTech Innovation Lab Asia-Pacific 2015

MY SON COULD READ BEFORE HE WAS EVEN POTTY TRAINED

MY SON COULD READ BEFORE HE WAS EVEN POTTY TRAINED
Jason Carmight | October 23, 2014 | Health | 21 Comments









I know all parents think that. But with my first born Joseph, I really did give him an advantage in life and it wasn’t because I was some super-mom with a secret.



I taught my Son to read before he reached 3 years old (2 years and 7 months to be exact).

I remember all my family was gathered around Joseph, my nearly three year old son.

They were looking at him as if they were expecting him to turn into a pumpkin or something. I should have been nervous. But I wasn’t. Because I knew my son would offer them what they wanted: the chance to see a three year old reading. And he did.

In those moments I felt so proud.

I had given my son the chance to have the brightest future.

You may of heard about the Matthew’s effect in reading. It is a theory that children who achieve literacy early in life develop unique mental abilities that will help them later in life. I’ve seen this theory working with my best friend, Sam.

I’ve known Sam all my life.

Our parents were friends and we grew up together.Unlike me, he was only allowed to go out and play as long as he did his homework daily. But we weren’t even in school! I didn’t understand it at the time. You see, Sam’s father would teach Sam things we were supposed to learn later in school.

Things like reading.

We were 5 years old at the time and Sam already knew how to read. He would read stories to me and I was fascinated. As the years passed, I was witness to Sam’s success:
he got into an Ivy League college
he graduated Magna Cum Laude
he became the youngest professor at his university in a decade.

Though he was my best friend, I was a bit envious of Sam. He knew so much and was considered a genius. He went to dinner with some of the world’s greatest minds. And me? I managed to get a decent job as a secretary.

So when my son was born I promised myself that he would have the life I’ve always dreamed about.

I figured I had three choices. I could try the classical method that could provide me with some results, but it took very long and required tremendous efforts from my Son and I. I could wait for him to learn how to read in school which would require no effort from my side, but there was the big risk of him struggling later in life.

Or I could try a method I’d read about online called Children Learning Reading by Jim and Elena Yang, which was a little odd but, if it worked, I would ensure my kid his success in life and would require a minimum effort from both of us. I decided to give it a try.

I was very interested to learn:
The only effective way of teaching children how to read (we’ve been thinking about it all wrong)
How to teach your child how to read before they turn 3 (in less than 15 minutes per day!)
The 3 mistakes that can make your child associate pain with learning to read (do. not. make. this. mistake!)
The 1 thing that makes your child beg you every day to learn to read (this is a big help)

If you watch the video you’ll see Jim Yang’s gorgeous little girl and his incredible son both reading, on video, before age 3. You’ll also see Raine reading books fluently at 4 years old. It’s incredible to witness.

MY SON COULD READ BEFORE HE WAS EVEN POTTY TRAINED

MY SON COULD READ BEFORE HE WAS EVEN POTTY TRAINED
Jason Carmight | October 23, 2014 | Health | 21 Comments









I know all parents think that. But with my first born Joseph, I really did give him an advantage in life and it wasn’t because I was some super-mom with a secret.



I taught my Son to read before he reached 3 years old (2 years and 7 months to be exact).

I remember all my family was gathered around Joseph, my nearly three year old son.

They were looking at him as if they were expecting him to turn into a pumpkin or something. I should have been nervous. But I wasn’t. Because I knew my son would offer them what they wanted: the chance to see a three year old reading. And he did.

In those moments I felt so proud.

I had given my son the chance to have the brightest future.

You may of heard about the Matthew’s effect in reading. It is a theory that children who achieve literacy early in life develop unique mental abilities that will help them later in life. I’ve seen this theory working with my best friend, Sam.

I’ve known Sam all my life.

Our parents were friends and we grew up together.Unlike me, he was only allowed to go out and play as long as he did his homework daily. But we weren’t even in school! I didn’t understand it at the time. You see, Sam’s father would teach Sam things we were supposed to learn later in school.

Things like reading.

We were 5 years old at the time and Sam already knew how to read. He would read stories to me and I was fascinated. As the years passed, I was witness to Sam’s success:
he got into an Ivy League college
he graduated Magna Cum Laude
he became the youngest professor at his university in a decade.

Though he was my best friend, I was a bit envious of Sam. He knew so much and was considered a genius. He went to dinner with some of the world’s greatest minds. And me? I managed to get a decent job as a secretary.

So when my son was born I promised myself that he would have the life I’ve always dreamed about.

I figured I had three choices. I could try the classical method that could provide me with some results, but it took very long and required tremendous efforts from my Son and I. I could wait for him to learn how to read in school which would require no effort from my side, but there was the big risk of him struggling later in life.

Or I could try a method I’d read about online called Children Learning Reading by Jim and Elena Yang, which was a little odd but, if it worked, I would ensure my kid his success in life and would require a minimum effort from both of us. I decided to give it a try.

I was very interested to learn:
The only effective way of teaching children how to read (we’ve been thinking about it all wrong)
How to teach your child how to read before they turn 3 (in less than 15 minutes per day!)
The 3 mistakes that can make your child associate pain with learning to read (do. not. make. this. mistake!)
The 1 thing that makes your child beg you every day to learn to read (this is a big help)

If you watch the video you’ll see Jim Yang’s gorgeous little girl and his incredible son both reading, on video, before age 3. You’ll also see Raine reading books fluently at 4 years old. It’s incredible to witness.

Revel in these picturesque villages of Britain

Revel in these picturesque villages of Britain


Britain is known more for its picturesque countryside locations. The authentic British lifestyle still thrives in numerous villages doted across the country. They may be small, but these villages make up for that with their astounding beauty and equally wonderful locals who would be more than willing to welcome you with their generous hospitality and trademark British food. If you are on the lookout for such a place, then here are 7 of the most beautiful villages you cannot absolutely miss on out on while visiting Britain.

Clovelly in Devon






You will be astonished as to how laidback this beautiful village is in terms of civilization. Situated on a steep hill, the village is filled with charming whitewashed cottages complete with vibrant geraniums and fuchsias, lining the narrow cobblestoned streets that lead down to an ancient harbor. The streets are pretty steep. So cars are banned. The best mode of transportation would be on foot or carriages.

Hobham in Surrey






Hobham National Nature Reserve and consists of miles of beautiful green lowlands which provide the perfect setting for a picture perfect historic village. The village is located close to the Woking Station and is close to London Waterloo. Step into Hobham and you will be transported a few centuries back instantly.

Abbotsbury in Dorset






Considered as one of the most naturally beautiful villages in all of Britain, Abbotsbury in Dorset contains an amazing flora and fauna mix that would spellbind you for sure. Quaint stone cottages and thatched roofs complete the age old look of this historic town that is also home to plenty of natural wonders like the Fleet, a lagoon that stretches for over 8 miles and is home to several rare seabirds, and the Subtropical Gardens, a 20 acre garden which is home to exotic plants . However, the highlight of visiting Abbotsbury is the chance to walk among thousands of nesting, breeding and hatching swans. So don’t miss this one for sure.

Lalock in Wiltshire






You may have probably seen quite a few views of this village in a very popular movie. Considered as a very popular filming location thanks to its stunning natural green visuals, and has been featured in more than one of the Harry Potter Movies. The entire village has been preserved by the National Trust in order to maintain its natural beauty and character.

Castle Combe in Wiltshire






While visiting Wiltshire, make it a point to visit another one of Britain’s most beautiful villages, Castle Combe. Surrounded by dense woodlands in the Cotswolds valley, Castle Combe is as authentic as they can get. It dates back several hundred years and offers you the chance to enjoy some peace and quiet with your loved ones, devoid of any interruptions from the modern world. Don’t miss the 15th century clock tower that used to ring for hours on end.

Clare in Suffolk






Clare in Suffolk is the perfect excuse for you to let go of all the pleasures of the modern world and travel back in time to live life the way the British used to in those day. You will be overwhelmed by the number of sights that impress you here, from the motte of a medieval castle and the stunning Augustinian abbey to the historic ‘Ancient House’ museum in Church Street. Although a bit crowded during the tourist season, the village never fails to surprise you with the way it remains disconnected with these monetary benefits of the tourist trade.

Bourton –on-the-Water in Gloucestershire






The entire village of Bourton-on-the-Water as the name implies, seems to be standing on water, courtesy the shallow Windrush River that runs through the entire village. The entire setting resembles a picture you would find in a postcard, complete with small arched footbridges for crossing and quaint little yellow sandstone houses that stand above the water, adding more vibrancy to the surroundings.

Revel in these picturesque villages of Britain

Revel in these picturesque villages of Britain


Britain is known more for its picturesque countryside locations. The authentic British lifestyle still thrives in numerous villages doted across the country. They may be small, but these villages make up for that with their astounding beauty and equally wonderful locals who would be more than willing to welcome you with their generous hospitality and trademark British food. If you are on the lookout for such a place, then here are 7 of the most beautiful villages you cannot absolutely miss on out on while visiting Britain.

Clovelly in Devon






You will be astonished as to how laidback this beautiful village is in terms of civilization. Situated on a steep hill, the village is filled with charming whitewashed cottages complete with vibrant geraniums and fuchsias, lining the narrow cobblestoned streets that lead down to an ancient harbor. The streets are pretty steep. So cars are banned. The best mode of transportation would be on foot or carriages.

Hobham in Surrey






Hobham National Nature Reserve and consists of miles of beautiful green lowlands which provide the perfect setting for a picture perfect historic village. The village is located close to the Woking Station and is close to London Waterloo. Step into Hobham and you will be transported a few centuries back instantly.

Abbotsbury in Dorset






Considered as one of the most naturally beautiful villages in all of Britain, Abbotsbury in Dorset contains an amazing flora and fauna mix that would spellbind you for sure. Quaint stone cottages and thatched roofs complete the age old look of this historic town that is also home to plenty of natural wonders like the Fleet, a lagoon that stretches for over 8 miles and is home to several rare seabirds, and the Subtropical Gardens, a 20 acre garden which is home to exotic plants . However, the highlight of visiting Abbotsbury is the chance to walk among thousands of nesting, breeding and hatching swans. So don’t miss this one for sure.

Lalock in Wiltshire






You may have probably seen quite a few views of this village in a very popular movie. Considered as a very popular filming location thanks to its stunning natural green visuals, and has been featured in more than one of the Harry Potter Movies. The entire village has been preserved by the National Trust in order to maintain its natural beauty and character.

Castle Combe in Wiltshire






While visiting Wiltshire, make it a point to visit another one of Britain’s most beautiful villages, Castle Combe. Surrounded by dense woodlands in the Cotswolds valley, Castle Combe is as authentic as they can get. It dates back several hundred years and offers you the chance to enjoy some peace and quiet with your loved ones, devoid of any interruptions from the modern world. Don’t miss the 15th century clock tower that used to ring for hours on end.

Clare in Suffolk






Clare in Suffolk is the perfect excuse for you to let go of all the pleasures of the modern world and travel back in time to live life the way the British used to in those day. You will be overwhelmed by the number of sights that impress you here, from the motte of a medieval castle and the stunning Augustinian abbey to the historic ‘Ancient House’ museum in Church Street. Although a bit crowded during the tourist season, the village never fails to surprise you with the way it remains disconnected with these monetary benefits of the tourist trade.

Bourton –on-the-Water in Gloucestershire






The entire village of Bourton-on-the-Water as the name implies, seems to be standing on water, courtesy the shallow Windrush River that runs through the entire village. The entire setting resembles a picture you would find in a postcard, complete with small arched footbridges for crossing and quaint little yellow sandstone houses that stand above the water, adding more vibrancy to the surroundings.

Countries you can visit to see the world’s most beautiful women

Most beautiful ladies.....

Women no doubt are beautiful creations of God, and remain beautiful no matter where they are. However, they tend to exceed the boundaries of beauty a bit and become almost angel like in certain countries. And if you are wondering where you would be able to find such women, check out the list of the countries you can visit to see the world’s most beautiful women. Note: Random Order.


Ukraine






Ukraine is well known for women beauty, striking, stunning and ever smiling fairy angels make this place heaven for men, one of the best in business. The best places in the country to catch the true beauty of its women include the capital city, Kiev, Odessa and the Black Sea Coast.

Sweden






Sweden is considered to be the country with the best looking men and women in the entire world. In addition to housing some seriously beautiful places and attractions, the country is teeming with beautiful gals and guys galore!

The women you meet in this country are literally stunning. Picture this! Tall and slender, blonde and blue eyed, smart and friendly, and highly educated. That’s what would describe a Swedish woman. Probably the best place to get a girl with both the beauty and the brains!

Thailand






Thailand may be known for its nature, culture and hospitality. It is also known for its beautiful women who are shy, but extremely friendly and romantic once they come to know you though. A tad bit dark skinned, these beauties sport soft features and exude a jaw dropping raw exoticism that needs to be seen to be believed!


Bulgaria






Bulgarian women are no exception as well!

Not many would know that this little country in Eastern Europe happens to be home to some of the most angelic women on Earth. With plenty of medieval towns, lively cities, bustling ski resorts and stunning beaches, Bulgaria is the quintessential holiday hub for avid travelers.

Tall, fair skinned, light eyed and dark haired, these beauties are extremely friendly and romantic. And if you really want to guess as to how they would look like in person, take a look at Kate Beckinsale from the Underworld movie series and you would probably know what we are talking about here.



Russia






Russia is said to be home to some of the most beautiful women on the planet. Fair skinned, blue eyed, raven haired, slender and highly intelligent. And the beauty of these women is not restricted to the capital alone. All the way from Siberia to Moscow, there are over 4000 miles of land filled with these gorgeous women. Better yet, you can manage to find a unique blend of Russian speaking Asians and Europeans as move towards Siberia.



Netherlands






The Dutch may be known around the world for their friendly hospitality. However, they are also known for their amazingly tall and beautiful women. And when we say tall, we mean really tall. The average Dutch women is easily over 5ft 8 inches tall.

But that doesn’t seem to deter individuals from flocking to the country just to have a look at these beauties. Don’t worry about the response you would get, as Dutch women also tend to be among the friendliest and most welcoming women on the planet.



Lebanon






The Arab world and beautiful women go hand in hand. And when it comes to gorgeous Arabian women, you would find plenty of them in Lebanon. If their slender, curvy and sun tanned bodies don’t catch your attention, their mesmerizing eyes definitely would. Usually left out from such lists, Lebanese women are like beautiful mysteries waiting to be unraveled.



Poland



Polish girls are known for stunning beauty, grace and femininity. Their salient body appeal gets immediate attention. Let it be modern or traditional dressing, they have good and rich taste of style and fashion. They take great pride in their cultural and traditional values. Not only beauty but their graceful, elegant and caring nature will also steal your heart. Most of the times Polish girls are friendly, caring, sweet tempered and really pleasant to deal with. They can be anything but not gold-diggers; a quality that makes them ideal for those looking for true love.



India






How can a list like this go complete without mentioning India? Sugar, Spice and everything nice! That’s the quintessential Indian woman for you. Sugary in her friendly demeanor and spicy in her looks and style quotients, the typical Indian beauty would captivate you for sure.

Indian women are very religious and cultural. And even the most modern Indian woman would transform into a traditional avatar from time to time. They take extra care in whatever they do, including treating, caring for and pampering their men.

No one can wear the saree like the Indian women. It’s actually a wonder as to how these women can drape themselves in 6 yards of cloth and still come out looking ultra-sexy and drop-dead gorgeous. And it takes a certain panache to carry off the saree in style, which Indian women manage to accomplish effortlessly.



Brazil






Brazilian beauties are world famous, as they are a superb mix of bodies and features. It is believed that in Brazil, one can find the most ethnically mixed people, and probably this is what brings so much of beauty in its inhabitants, especially women. One can amaze oneself being in Brazil and see sexy blondes and lovely black women. Brazilian models are everywhere with their curvaceous bodies and sporty features.



Italy






Italy is one country that has contributed a lot to all of us, as in it has given us all some amazing fashion brands, scintillating Ferraris, mouthwatering pizzas and pastas, and last but surely not the least, the wonderful women. Italian women are famous all over the world as super hot models. Italian women are known as Bella and they are extremely elegant and chic in their style. As Italy is a fashion hub, Italian women have extraordinary fashion sense, which adds on to their beauty.



Canada






Canada is a country with many ethnic groups, which is why the beauties you find there are the best of everywhere. There you find white women, black, and the mixed that look drop dead gorgeous. Majority of women there do not shirk work out, as they love to be in shape and flaunt their curvaceous bodies.



Serbia






You could easily find a tall, fair, sexy, and gorgeous woman in Serbia. Their beautiful features and perfect bodies are owing to their marvelous genes, a combination of Mediterranean and the Slavic genes. Approximately 99 percent of the Serbian girls are naturally blessed with the perfect body shape that is required to become an actor, those long legs, flat tummy, perfect waist, right sized ass, and curvy breasts.



South Korea






Fair and glowing skin, lustrous hair, and cute features make Korean girls adorable and sexy. Yet another factor that makes Korean beauties even more stylish is their impeccable fashion sense.



Croatia






The scintillating beauties of Croatia have features that seem to be the best of Italian and French beauties. Women there have such beautiful texture and color of skin that not many of them even require makeup. While in Croatia, visitors cannot help but appreciate the natural beauties.



Colombia






Beauties in Colombia are very different from women at other places, a beautiful combination of modernity and traditionalism. They are bold and beautiful, and while you are in Colombia, you would not have trouble finding eye candies for sure. Also below is hispanic Colombian women.







Argentina






This South American country is known for its stunning beaches and locales, and equally stunning women. The women here are tall, striking, fashionable, friendly and incredibly romantic. And they tend to speak English with a heavy accent that would floor you instantly! Probably, it explains why Argentina is considered home to the most beautiful women in the Western Hemisphere.



Ethiopia








Incorporating the mysticism and appeal of Ethiopia, the Ethiopian women are among the most desirable females one can find on the face of the globe. The manner in which they don their traditional attire, talk and carry themselves can leave anyone spellbound. They are a perfect blend of sophistication and simplicity. Their ebony skin, cheeky bones and thick stature may lure into extending your trip to the African nation.



Romanian





Classy, cultured, hardworking, caring, appreciative, understanding, feminine and upholding traditional values, Romanian women have everything that a male is looking in his spouse. No wonder, males across the globe visit Romania to spend time with the beautiful and tall Romanian women and woe them for marriage. They are known to be natively smart and give preference to culture and personal development in her life.

—

We agree that every single women is beautiful regardless of age, race, country she lives in. However, this is just our humble opinion and attempt to identify countries with most beautiful women based on several distinguished factors. We also agree that every one perceive beauty differently and we respect your opinion. Also please note above countries are in random order.